Teaching Statistics for Bildung: What does it Mean – and What does it Take?

Bildung, Lower secondary education , Statistics teaching

In recent decades, data and statistics have become increasingly central to political decision-making, working life and citizens’ everyday orientations. Statistical models and data-driven systems shape access to information, justify societal decisions and frame public debate, while the assumptions and data underlying these processes often remain inaccessible to nonspecialists. In school contexts, this development gives rise to a persistent relevance paradox. Although statistics is widely recognised as societally important, students frequently experience statistics teaching as procedurally oriented and detached from questions that matter. This dissertation takes this tension as its point of departure and investigates how statistics teaching in Danish lower secondary schools can contribute to students’ Bildung.

Bildung is understood as an educational orientation concerned with the development of judgement, self-activity and participation in the world. Rooted in the German–Scandinavian Didaktik tradition, Bildung functions in this dissertation as a regulative idea rather than as a definable or measurable outcome. The thesis does not seek to identify Bildung as an observable product of teaching; instead, it explores how Bildung-oriented intentions can be interpreted, enacted and made pedagogically meaningful in concrete statistics teaching practices. Statistical literacy, critical statistical literacy and civic statistics are interpreted through this Bildung lens as domain-specific articulations of shared normative aspirations related to judgement, autonomy and participation.

The overarching research aim guiding the dissertation is: How can statistics teaching in Danish lower secondary schools contribute to students’ Bildung? This question is elaborated into two subsidiary questions addressing (a) how students’ engagement with real-world data may support the development of self-activity and personal judgement in situations involving statistics and (b) how such engagement may support students’ opportunities for mündig participation in these situations.

Methodologically, the dissertation is situated within a design-based research framework and builds on collaboration with an experienced mathematics teacher. The empirical material stems from three interconnected teaching modules implemented over the course of one school year in an ordinary Danish Grade 6 classroom. Across the modules, students engaged with data related to personal and societal contexts, including family-related data, classroom-based investigations and publicly reported statistical studies. Digital statistical tools were used throughout the teaching to support exploration, representation and interpretation of data. The study combines classroom experiments, video-based analyses of whole-class discussions, student work and supplementary analyses to examine how teaching designs shape students’ engagement with statistics.

A central theoretical and empirical focus of this dissertation is the statistical idea of distribution, which is conceptualised as exemplary content for Bildung-oriented statistics teaching. Distribution is treated not merely as a topic within statistics but as a way of viewing the world that foregrounds variation, aggregation and interpretation beyond individual cases. Through engagement with distribution, students are invited to shift their perspective from anecdotal reasoning to collective descriptions and from isolated values to meaningful structures. This shift is analysed as a key condition for the development of statistical judgement in personal and societal contexts.

The empirical analyses show how students’ conceptualisation of distribution develops through interactions with dynamic digital tools. These tools enable students to manipulate data, compare representations and explore the effects of different ways of structuring and summarising data. In doing so, digital tools support students’ movement between informal sense-making and more formal statistical descriptions while also influencing the opportunities for reflection and judgement that emerge.

The dissertation further demonstrates that students’ Bildung-oriented engagement with statistics cannot be understood solely in terms of individual conceptual development. It is closely connected to the social and normative dimensions of classroom practice. Analyses of whole-class discussions show how productive sociomathematical norms emerge over time, shaping what counts as a valuable statistical description, a meaningful interpretation and a legitimate statistical argument. These norms support students in moving beyond procedural responses towards reflective use of statistical descriptors, critical comparison of representations and justification of claims in relation to real-world phenomena.

A recurring finding is the importance of balancing receptivity and self-activity in statistics teaching. Students’ receptivity is supported when teaching designs invite openness to variation and multiple ways of interpreting data. Students’ self-activity is supported when they are given opportunities to articulate their own perspectives, relate statistical findings to their experiences and participate in shared interpretation and judgement. The dissertation shows how this balance can be mediated through the choice of data, the use of digital tools and the orchestration of classroom dialogue.

This dissertation contributes to statistics education research by offering a theoretically grounded and empirically informed exploration of statistics teaching for Bildung. It advances the conceptualisation of distribution as exemplary content, clarifies the mediating role of digital tools in students’ development of judgement and self-activity and demonstrates how sociomathematical norms can support Bildung-oriented engagement with statistics. Methodologically, the study contributes to discussions of empirical Bildung research by illustrating how Bildung can be approached through analyses of teaching practices without being reduced to predefined outcomes or competencies. The dissertation concludes by synthesising revised design principles for statistics teaching that aim to support students’ judgement, self-activity and mündig participation in a data-rich society.

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