Education and Democratic Learning in Refugree Camps: German Refugees in Denmark After Second World War

Democratic learning, Second World War, Refugee Camps, Education and information

When the German forces occupying Denmark capitulated in May 1945 several hundred thousand German civilian refugees were staying in the country. They had come from the eastern regions of Germany and had fled west for fear of the Russian soldiers. The refugees were mostly women, children and elderly people because many German men were serving in the military. During the first years after the war, returning to Germany was not possible for these refugees, and for many of them their home region would no longer be part of Germany. So, most of the refugees had to stay in Denmark for several years after the end of the war. They lived in refugee camps around the country, and their everyday life was characterized by cramped conditions, uncertainty, missing family and home and isolation from Danish society. After recognizing the situation, the Danish authorities responded by establishing a refugee administration to ensure orderly and humane conditions in the camps. Among its many activities the refugee administration organized schooling, education and information, much of which was aimed at democratic learning. The refugees themselves had an active and an important role in this.

The education and information work in the refugee camps is the focus of this book. It describes and analyses goals and plans developed by Danish authorities, the activities initiated, the cultural and ideological basis for the effort, and the German refugees' experiences of the schooling and information activities.

This publication is an English translation of the original Danish edition published in 2024. The Danish version is available here.

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Petersen, K., Lundtofte, H., Rasmussen, S. W. K. (2026). Mod en ny tid i et åbent øjeblik. Forventninger og udfordringer i Danmarks overgang fra krig til fred [Towards a new era in an open moment. Expectations and challenges in Denmark’s transition from war to peace]. I De udstødte, de uvelkomne og de beundrede: Danmark efter besættelsen [The excluded, the unwelcome and the admired. Denmark after the occupation]. (14–30). Nord Academic.

Popkewitz, T. (2012). Cosmopolitanism, making the nation and the citizen as a salvation theme of turn of the twentieth century pedagogy. Tolonen, T. et al (Eds.) Cultural practices and transitions in education, 41–58. London, the Tufnell Press.

Popkewitz, T. (2018). What is ‘Really’ Taught as the Content of School Subjects? Teaching School Subjects as an Alchemy. The High School Journal 101(2), 77–89.

Rasmussen, S. W. K. (2021). Tanker, tilværelse og samliv hos de tyske flygtninge: flygtningelejrene på Esbjerg Flyveplads 1945–46 [Thoughts, Existence and Cohabitation of the German Refugees: The Refugee Camps at Esbjerg Airfield 1945–46]. Levende viden, 8(8), 82 – 105.

Reichner, H. (1950). Über Lagerneurosen. K.H. Bauer et al (red.), Studium Generale 3(1), 10–16. Berlin og Heidelberg: Springer.

Rosenblad, J. (2014). Jens Rosenkjær. Biografisk Leksikon. https://biografiskleksikon.lex.dk/Jens_Rosenkj%C3%A6r

Roslyng-Jensen, P. (2013). Besættelseslitteraturen 2001–2006. Postmodernistisk variation og fortsat hausse [Occupation Literature 2001–2006. Postmodernist variation and continued bullishness]. Historisk Tidsskrift, 106(1), 198 – 242.

Rowold, F. & Bøggild, H. (2002). I læ for nazismen [Sheltered from Nazism]. Andersen, H. S. (red.). Bornholmske Samlinger III. Række 16, 9–76. Bornholms Historiske Samfund, Rønne.

Skovmand, R. (1962). Johannes Novrup and Danish Adult Education. International Review of Education, 8(2), 131–139.

Scholz, M. F. (2016). Vieweg, Kurt. Neue Deutsche Biographie 26 (2016), 805–807. https://www.deutschebiographie.de/pnd119435705.html#ndbcontent

Steffensen, H.R. (1993). Walter Schulze (1903–1980). W. Dähnhardt & B.S. Nielsen (Eds.). Exil in Dänemark. Deutschsprachige Wissenschaftler, Künstler und Schriftsteller im dänischen Exil nach 1933. Heide: Westholsteinische Verlagsanstalt Boyens & Co. 1993, p. 655–658.

Steffensen, H. R. (1986). Skolemanden Walter Schulze og Sonnenberg [Schoolman Walter Schulze and Sonnenberg]. In Steffensen, S. (1986). På Flugt fra Nazismen. Tysksprogede emigranter i Danmark efter 1933, 219–220. C. A. Reitzels Forlag.

Steffensen, H. R. (1986). Fhv. Ambassadør Karl Rowold, redaktør, flygtningeadministrator og medstifter af Sonnenberg [Former Ambassador Karl Rowold, editor, refugee administrator and co-founder of Sonnenberg]. Steffensen, S. (1986). På Flugt fra Nazismen. Tysksprogede emigranter i Danmark efter 1933, [Fleeing from Nazism. German-speaking emigrants in Denmark after 1933], 577– 584. C. A. Reitzels Forlag.

Sørensen, H. K. (2014). Confluences of agendas: Emigrant mathematicians in transit in Denmark, 1933–1945, Historia Mathematica, 41(2), 157–187.

Tervonen, M., Frøland, H.O., Hoffmann, C., Jalagin, S., Jønsson, H.V., Leinonen, J. & Thor Tureby, M. (2025). Forced migrants in Nordic historiographies. J. Leinonen, M. Tervonen, H.O. Frøland, C. Hoffmann, S. Jalagin, H.V. Jønssonand M. Thor Tureby (eds). Forced Migrants in Nordic Histories. Helsinki: Helsinki University Press.

Tröhler, D. (2021). From national exceptionalism to national imperialism: changing motives of comparative education. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 43 (3), 1–19.

Turner, S. (2015). What is a refugee camp? Explorations of the limits and effects of the camp. Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(4), 139 – 148.

Turner, S., & Whyte, Z. (2022). Introduction: Refugee camps as carceral junctions. Incarceration: An International Journal of Imprisonment, Detention and Coercive Confinement, 3(1), 1–9.

UNHCR (2026). United Nations Refugee Agency, https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/data-summaries, accessed 11 Marth 2026

Uwe Petersen, H. (1985). Flygtninge fra Hitler-Tyskland. En indføring i eksilforskningen [Refugees from Hitler’s Germany. An introduction to exile research]. Historisk Tidsskrift, 85(2), 258 – 287.

Warring, A. (2011). Erindring og historiebrug – introduktion til et forskningsfelt [Memory and use of history – introduction to a field of research]. Temp – Tidsskrift for Historie, 1(2), 6–35.

Weckel, U. (2003). The Mitläufer in Two German Postwar Films: Representation and Critical Reception. History & Memory. Studies in Representation of the Past 15(2), 64–93.

Øland, T., 2010. A state ethnography of progressivism: Danish school pedagogues and their efforts to emancipate the powers og the child, the people and the culture 1929–1960. Praktiske Grunde. Tidsskrift for kultur- og samfundsvidenskab, (1–2), 57–89.

Ministerial publications, official reports

Ministry of Education [Undervisningsministeriet] (1941). Betænkning afgivet af det af Undervisningsministeriet nedsatte ungdomsudvalg [Report submitted by the Youth Committee set up by the Ministry of Education]. Copenhagen, Schultz Bogtrykkeri.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs [Udenrigsministeriet] (1950). Aktstykker vedrørende de tyske flygtninge i Danmark 1945–49 [Records concerning the German refugees in Denmark 1945–49]. Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag.

Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs [Arbejds- og Socialministeriet] (1945). Reglement for de tyske Flygtninge [Regulations for the German Refugees]. Flygtningeadministrationen (1950). Flygtninge i Danmark 1945–1949, p. 305 – 307. Copenhagen: Fremad.

Refugee Administration’s Education Committee [Flygtningeadministrationen Undervisningsudvalget] (1946). Lehr- und Stoffplan für den Volksschulunterricht in den Flüchtlningslagern [Curriculum for primary school teaching in the refugee camps]. Copenhagen.

Refugee Administration [Flygtningeadministrationen] (1946). Oplysningsvirksomheden. Plan for en Ungdomsskole i de tyske Flygtningelejre [Information activities. Plan for a youth school in the German refugee camps]. Copenhagen, april 1946.

Refugee Administration’s Education Committee [Flygtningeadministrationens Undervisningsudvalg] (1946a). Das Kind in den beiden ersten Grundschuljahren [The child in the first two years of primary school]. Flygtningeadministrationen. Oksbøl.

Refugee Administration’s Education Committee [Flygtningeadministrationens Undervisningsudvalg] (1946b). Anleitung für den Rechenunterricht in der Grundschule [Guidelines for maths teaching in primary school]. Flygtningeadministrationen. Oksbøl.

Refugee Administration [Flygtningeadministrationen] (1950). Flygtninge i Danmark 1945–1949 [Refugees in Denmark 1945–1949]. Copenhagen: Fremad.

Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations (1985). A Decade of American Foreign Policy: Basic Documents 1941–1949. The Berlin (Potsdam) Conference, July 17 – August 2, 1945 (s. 28 – 38). United States Department of State, United States. Congress. Greenwood Press. Revised Edition. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade17.asp

UNESCO (1945). United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 16. November 1945. http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ddb73094.html

Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches, (“Weimarer Reichsverfassung”), 11. August 1919, https://www.verfassungen.de/de19-33/verf19-i.htm

Articles in newspapers

Deutsche Nachrichten (1946a). Freiheit [Freedom]. Deutsche Nachrichten, March 1946, issue 12, p. 5.

Deutsche Nachrichten (1946b). Debat [Debate]. Deutsche Nachrichten, April 1946, issue 16, p. 8.

Deutsche Nachrichten (1946c). Die ersten Flüchtlingstransporte nach Deutschland [The first refugee transports to Germany]. Deutsche Nachrichten, November 1946, issue 42, p. 1.

Henningsen, P. (1946/1973). Et Folks Medansvar [The co-responsibility of a people]. Dagbladet Politiken, 1946. Here cited from C. E. Bay og O. Harsløf (red.). Poul Henningsen, Kulturkritik, bd. III, 1943–56, p. 48–54. Copenhagen: Rhodos.

Koch, H. (1945). Ordet eller sværdet [The word or the sword]. Berlingske Aftenavis, 12. september, 1945, p. 4, 6–7.

Sources in archives and collections

The specific sources we have used and the archives in which the these are located, brief translation of the Danish language in brackets.

Rigsarkivet [The Danish National Archives]

Arkivskaber [Archivist]: Gammelgaard, Arne

Arkivserie: Materialesamling vedr. tyske flygtning 1945–1949 (1949 – 2012) [Archive series: Collection of documents on German refugees 1945–1949 (1949–2012)].

Løbenummer [No.]: A, Indhold: A Originale dokumenter og diverse skrivelser mv. [Original documents]

Beretning af Ralph (pseudonym) [Account by Ralph].

Løbenummer [No.]: C1, Indhold: C1 Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger A – C1, Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger B [Letters].

Beretning af Hanna (pseudonym) [Account by Hanna (pseudonym)].

Løbenummer [No.]: C2, Indhold: C2 Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger D – C2, Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger H [Letters]

Beretning af Klaus (pseudonym) [Account by Klaus (pseudonym)].

Beretning af Ruth (pseudonym) [Account by Ruth (pseudonym)].

Løbenummer [No.]: C3, Indhold: C3 Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger J – C3, Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger N [Letters]

Beretning af Patrick (pseudonym) [Account by Patrick (pseudonym)].

Beretning af Sebastian (pseudonym) [Account by Sebastian (pseudonym)].

Løbenummer [No.]: C4, Indhold: C4 Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger O – C4, Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger S [Letters]

Beretning af Emilia (pseudonym) [Account by Emilia (pseudonym)]

Beretning fra Poschmann, A. (udateret) s. 1–13, [Account by Poschmann (no date)].

Løbenummer [No.]: C5, Indhold: C5 Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger T – C5, Breve fra daværende internerede med beretninger Z [Letters]

Beretning af Margaretha (pseudonym) [Account by Margaretha (pseudonym)].

Arkivskaber: Rigsarkivet [Archivist: The Refugee Administration]

Arkivserie: Oplysningsvirksomheden: Korrespondance med komitéer m.v. (1945 – 1949)

Løbenummer [No.]: 106, Indhold: 1946 A – 1946 H

Krämer, W. (28. februar 1946). Planer og Forslag over Oplysnings- og Opdragelsesarbejde i de tyske Flygtningelejre i Aarhus Centralbiblioteks Omraade [Plans and Proposals for Information and Educational Work in the German Refugee Camps in the Aarhus Central Library Area].

Blutau, K. (1946). Beretning om det forberedende Arbejde angaaende Ungdomsundervisningen i Skrydstrup I og II, [Report on the preparatory work regarding youth education in Skrydstrup I and II]. I, Blutau, K. (1946). Barsmark Strand og Hørup Klint (15/8 – 31/8 1946) (p. 1–7).

Flüchlinglager Stabrand. Bericht über die kulturelle Betreuung der Flühtlinge [Refugee Camp Stabrand. Report on the cultural care for the refugees] Rigsarkivet [Danish National Archive]. (1 May 1946).

Flüchlinglager Tirstrup. Bericht über die kulturelle Betreuung der Flühtlinge [Refugee Camp Tirstrup. Report on the cultural care for the refugees] Rigsarkivet [Danish National Archive]. (1 May 1946).

Løbenummer [No.]: 107, Indhold: 1946 H – 1946 O

Winkler, H. (22. juli 1946). Beretning om kulturarbejdet i Rom i tiden fra den 15.6 til 20.7 [Report on cultural work in Rom camp from 15.6 to 20.7].

Winkler, H. (1. juni 1946). Indberetning til Flygtningeadministrationen Oplysningsvirksomheden (1 page) [Reporting to the Refugee Administration Information Service].

Løbenummer [No.]: 102, Arkivserie: Diverse Sager, Oplysningsvirksomheden (1945 – 1949). Indhold: Flygtningesagens historie, flygtningeproblemer 1945–49 – “Flygtning i Danmark 1945–1949” [Documents from the Information Comittee]

Beretning fra leder af studiekreds i Karrebæksmindelejren 1946. Upubliceret manuskript. [Report from the leader of a study group in Karrebæksminde camp 1946. Unpublished manuscript].

Arkivskaber [Archivist]: Flygtningeadministrationen, Undervisningsudvalg

Arkivserie: Indberetninger om lejrenes skoler og om lærerne (1946 – 1947) [Reports on the camps’ schools and teachers (1946 – 1947)]

Løbenummer [No.]: 199:

Fosmark, J. (1. april 1946). Tilføjelse til rapport om Kløvermarkslejren [Addendum to report on Kløvermarkslejren].

Fosmark, J. (20. maj 1946). Tilføjelse til rapporten fra lejren i St. Magleby, Forældreaften [Addendum to report from camp in St. Magleby, Parents’ Evening].

Moldt, C. (4. november 1946). Beretning fra lejren ved Kastrup Fort [Report from camp at Kastrup Fort].

Moldt, C. (7. november 1946). Beretning fra lejren i St. Magleby. [Report from camp at St. Magleby].

Moldt. C. (28. november 1946). Beretning fra lejren ved Kastrup Fort. [Report from camp at Kastrup Fort].

Moldt, C. (9. januar 1947). Besøg i lejren på Emdrupvej. [Report from camp at Emdrupvej].

Moldt, C. (23. januar 1947). Rapport fra Udflytterlejren i Dragør. [Report from camp at Dagør].

Moldt, C. (21. februar 1947). Beretning fra lejren i St. Magleby. [Report from camp at St. Magleby].

Løbenummer [No.]: 200,

Arndt, F. (25. januar 1946). Bilag til Beretningen om Oksbøllejren den 23. januar 1946 [Appendix to the Report on the Oksbøll Camp, 23 January 1946]

Jensen, J. Aa. (18. marts 1946). Rapport fra Flyvepladsen ved Frederikshavn [Report from the Airfield at Frederikshavn].

Jensen, J. Aa. (30. april 1946). Besøg i Jægersprislejren, Frejlev pr. Aalborg [Visit to the Jægerspris Camp, Frejlev, Aalborg].

Jensen, J. Aa. (28. juni 1947). Besøg i Knivholtlejren [Visit to the Knivholt Camp].

Jensen, J. Aa. (2. august 1947). Besøg i Øst II (Aalborg) [Visit to East II (Aalborg)].

Jensen, J. Aa. (6. august 1947). Besøg paa Vandflyvepladsen [Visit to the Seaplane Airfield].

Arkivskaber [Archivist]: Havrehed, Henrik

Arkivserie: Dokumenter vedr. tyske flygtninge (1940 – 1994) [Archive series: Documents concerning German refugees (1940 – 1994)], Løbenummer: 11, Indhold: 1 67 – 1 92 [Serial number: 11, Contents: 1 67 – 1 92]

Flygtningeadministrationen (1946a). Eksempler på politiske og historiske emner, der kan danne grundlag for undersøgelse af lærernes brugbarhed. Notat (2 sider) [Examples of political and historical topics that can form the basis for studying the usefulness of teachers. Note (2 pages).

Rowold, K. (Januar 1947). Karl Rowolds beretning: ”Deutsche Flüchtlinge in Dänemark” [Karl Rowold’s report: ”Deutsche Flüchtlinge in Dänemark”].

Flygtningeadministrationen Oplysningsvirksomheden (1. februar 1946). Vejledning i en endelig sortering af tysk litteratur i de tyske Flygtningelejre [Guidance for a final sorting of German literature in the German Refugee camps].

Arkivskaber [Archivist]: Kjærbøl, Johannes og hustru Gerda Astrid Kjærbøl, født Poulsen

Arkivserie: Korrespondance, sagligt ordnet (1908–1972), Løbenummer: 4, Indhold: Korrespondance vedr. flygtningeadministrationen – Korrespondance vedr. rejser til Østen [Archive series: Correspondence, organized in a systematic manner (1908–1972), Serial number: 4, Contents: Correspondence regarding the refugee administration – Correspondence regarding travel to the East].

Betragtninger vedrørende aflønning af de tyske flygtninge [Considerations regarding the remuneration of the German refugees].

Arkivserie: Manuskripter til artikler, taler m.m. (1929–1964), Løbenummer: 7 [Archive series: Manuscripts for articles, speeches, etc. (1929–1964), Serial number: 7].

Kjærbøl, J. (29. september 1945). Radiotale. (s. 1–39) [Radio speech. (pp. 1–39)].

Kjærbøl, J. (11. december 1945). Radiotale. (s. 1–35) [Radio speech. (pp. 1–35)].

Kjærbøl, J. (13. oktober 1945). Tale i studenterforeningen. (s. 1–37) [Speech in the Student Association. (pp. 1–37)].

Blåvandshuk lokalhistoriske Arkiv [Blåvandshuk Local History Archive].

Arkivserie: Flygtningelejren i Oksbøl. Arkivnummer: A165, 3, 1945, Kasse C [Archive series: Refugee camp in Oksbøl. Archive number: A165, 3, 1945, Box C]

Underviserberetning. Erfaringer/Jugendschule (1983). (Arkivnummer: 6C 1945–1949 A) [Teacher’s report. Experiences/Youth School (l983). (Archive number: 6C 1945–1949 A)].

Lomborg-Rom Lokalhistorisk Arkiv [Lomborg-Rom Local Historcal Archive]

Arkivnummer [Archive number]: A517, Krigen 1939–1945. Besættelsen. Lager-Zeitung für die Flüchtlingslager Rom (1946) [ A517, The war 1939–1945. The occupation. Lager-Zeitung für die Flüchtlingslager Rom (1946)]

Lager-Zeitung für die Flüchtlingslager Rom I und II, Nr. 30, Rom, den 9. Juni 1946. https://arkiv.dk/vis/3788752 [Lager-Zeitung für die Flüchtlingslager Rom I und II, No. 30, Rom, 9 June 1946. https://arkiv.dk/vis/3788752].

Odense Stadsarkiv [Odense City Archives]

Arkivnummer Æ3026. Tyske flygtninge i Odense 1945–1947. Offentlig indkvartering. Odense Kommunes Socialvæsen. Arkivkasse 14, Læg 86: Indberetninger fra lejrlederne [Archive number Æ3026. German refugees in Odense 1945–1947. Public accommodation. Odense Municipality Social Services. Archive box 14, Shelf 86: Reports from the camp leaders]

Hansen pva. Flygtningeadministrationen Oplysningsudvalget (1. juli 1946). Flygtningeadministrationen Oplysningsvirksomheden, 1. juli 1946, Oversigt over tyske Flygtningelejre, som paaregnes opretholdt som permanente [Overview of German refugee camps that are expected to be maintained as permanent].

Hansen, P. (1946). Memorandum vedrørende oplysningsarbejdet i de tyske flygtningelejre. Flygtninge-administrationen Oplysningsvirksomheden. 16. januar 194 [Memorandum regarding the information work in the German refugee camps. Refugee Administration Information Work. January 16, 1946].

Flygtningeadministrationen Oplysningsvirksomheden (1. juli 1946). Brev om gennemførelsen af Ungdomsskole i henhold til Ungdomsskoleplanen [Letter about the implementation of Youth School according to the Youth School Plan]. 1. juli 1946. Flygtningeadministrationen.

Statens Civile Luftværn (2. juli 1946). Brev til samtlige Luftværnschefer ved tyske Flygtningeforlægninger og samtlige Lejrchefer. 2. juli 1946 [Letter to all Air Defense Commanders at German Refugee Settlements and all Camp Commanders. July 2, 1946]. Statens Civile Luftværn.

Statens Civile Luftværn (12. december 1945). Meddelelse ang. Deutche Nachrichten [Notice regarding Deutsche Nachrichten]. Statens Civile Luftværn.

Luftværnschefen, Luftbeskyttelsesomraade Odense, 12. marts 1946 Anmodning om oplysning om antal skolepligtige børn [Request for information on the number of school-age children].

Flygtningeregistreringens Undervisningsudvalg, 1.januar 1946. Brev til Luftværnschefen i Odense [Letter to the Air Force Commander in Odense].

Lejrchefen, Allesølejren, 8. januar 1946, Brev med anmodning om forskellige materialer [Letter requesting various materials].

Luftværnschefen, Odense, 7. december 1945, Brev til lejrlederne [Letter to the camp leaders]. Luftværnschefen, Odense, 20. november 1945, s. 1–2.